Journal of Academic Research for Humanities (JARH) is a double-blind, peer-reviewed, Open Free Access, online Multidisciplinary Research Journal
Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer

Vol. 6 No. 1 (2026)
The International "Journal of Academic Research for Humanities"

Research Articles

Perceptions of Critical Thinking among Teachers and Leaders in Private Pakistani School Education

Published 31-03-2026

  • Mussarat Mashhadi Shahid

Mussarat Mashhadi Shahid
Head of Writing & Communication Centre, English, Humanities, Forman Christian College University, Lahore, Pakistan

Abstract

Given the increased emphasis on critical thinking in the realm of teaching and learning across the globe and the lack of attention afforded to this crucial skill in schools in Pakistan, a study based on grounded theory was conducted in four high-end private Pakistani educational institutions. This exploratory study, with data collected by way of extensive interviews, was conducted to ascertain how critical thinking is perceived by teachers, school leaders and school directors in these private schools. The findings suggest that although critical thinking is valued by teachers, school leaders and school directors in these schools, it is restricted by a range of diverse factors, the most significant being a grade-oriented mindset among all stakeholders, which includes teachers, school leaders, school directors, the student body, as well as parents. This obsession with grades is exacerbated by a ‘pervasive culture of hegemony’, where the parent body seems interested only in their child’s results and a return on investment. Similarly, teachers and school leaders are concerned more about their image and the reputation of their institutions, respectively. The resulting ‘consumerism’, coupled with an already existing hegemonic culture, is perhaps one of the reasons that may have contributed to a sense of ‘inertia’ in the overall system of education in the country. Consequently, though the private school systems advertise the inclusion of critical and creative thinking in their curriculum, which is based on the UK-based Cambridge O and A-level examination, the findings do not quite support this claim.

Keywords

critical thinking, perceptions, Pakistani private sector education, teachers and leaders, culture of hegemony, Grounded theory study

PDF

Author Biography

Mussarat Mashhadi Shahid

Mussarat Shahid                                                                                        

Musarrat’s core areas of interest and expertise are educational leadership, teacher training and English language teaching. Her passion lies in the cultivation and fostering, in teachers and leaders, of a love for innovative ways to make learning filled with fun and challenge. Mussarat is currently the Head of the Writing & Communication Center at the Forman Christian College University, Lahore Pakistan. She is also working in an Advisory role for the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education sector and has developed content for and trained headteachers on teacher induction programme, coaching skills and subject expert training (English). Along with this, Mussarat works as a consultant for (Institute of Social and Policy Sciences) I-SAPS and is responsible for curating and executing modules and courses ranging from coaching skills, distance learning in calamities, innovative ideas for English language teaching etc. 

 

Her previous experience spans almost 20 years, as an educational leader. Besides leading four elite and reputed private sector schools in Lahore, Pakistan, Mussarat has extensive experience of post graduate teaching, as well. She has continued to engage with teachers from across the private and public sector and has provided professional development consultation and teacher training across Pakistan. In addition, Mussarat is also a qualified Programme Leader for the Diploma in Teaching and Learning offered by the Cambridge Assessment International Services, Professional Development Qualifications.

 

Musarrat holds a Master's in ELT from Kinnaird College, Pakistan, a Master's in School Administration, and a Postgraduate Certificate from the University of Exeter, UK. She recently completed an M.Phil. in Educational Leadership and School Improvement from the University of Cambridge. Currently, she is pursuing a Ph.D. in Education at Lahore College for Women University, with her thesis focused on developing an intervention framework to integrate affective skills into preservice teacher education programs.

References

  1. Abrahamson, E., & Fombrun, C. J. (1992). Forging the iron cage: interorganizational networks and the production of macro‐culture. Journal of Management Studies, 29(2), 175194.Abrami, P.C., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D.I., Wade, C.A. and Persson, T. (2015). Strategies for teaching students to think critically: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 85(2), pp.275-314.
  2. Allen, C. D., & Gerras, S. J. (2009). Developing creative and critical thinkers. Army Combined Arms Centre, Fort Leavenworth
  3. Cole, M., & Scribner, S. (1974). Culture & thought: A psychological introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
  4. Delphi Report (1990). Delphi Report, Committee on Pre-College Philosophy. (ERIC Doc. No. ED 315 423). American Philosophical Association, Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction. Fullerton: American Philosophical Association.
  5. DeStefano, J., & Schuh Moore, A. M. (2010). The roles of non-state providers in ten complementary education programmes. Development in Practice, 20(4-5), 511-526.
  6. Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory Into Practice, 32(3), 179–186.
  7. Facione, P.A. (1990a). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction. Research findings and recommendations. The Complete American Philosophical Association Delphi Research Report. The California Academic Press, Millbrae, CA.
  8. Frith, H., & Harcourt, D. (2007). Using photographs to capture women’s experiences of chemotherapy: Reflecting on the method. Qualitative Health Research, 17(10), 1340-1350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732307308949
  9. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1966). The purpose and credibility of qualitative research. Nursing research, 15(1), 56-61.
  10. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldire.
  11. Halpern, D.F. (2014). Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking (5th ed.). NY: Psychology Press
  12. Hanson, N. R. (1958). Patterns of Discovery: An Inquiry into the Conceptual Foundations of Science
  13. Illeris, K. (2004). Transformative learning from the perspective of a comprehensive learning theory. Journal of Transformative education, 2(2), 117-118
  14. McPeck, J.E. (1990). Critical thinking and subject specificity: A reply to Ennis. Educational Researcher, 19(4), pp.10-12.
  15. NEMIS (National Education Management Information System) 2015. Pakistan Education Statistics 2013– 2014. Islamabad: AEPAM. http://www.aepam.edu.pk/Index.asp?PageId=27
  16. Paul, R. (1990). Critical Thinking. What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World. Centre for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique, Rohnert Park. https://scirp.org/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=1895021
  17. Rahman, Tariq. 2001. “English-Teaching Institutions in Pakistan.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 22 (3): 242–261.
  18. Sathar, Z. A., and C. B. Lloyd. 1994. “Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families.” The Pakistan Development Review 33 (2): 103–134.
  19. Spradley, James P. 1979. The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
  20. Nick Adnett, “Private-Sector Provision of Schooling: An Economic Assessment,” Comparative Education, 40: 3, 2004, 385-399.
  21. Tahir Andrabi et al. “The Rise of Private Schooling in Pakistan: Catering to the Urban Elite or Educating the Rural Poor?” (Pomona College, World Bank, and Harvard University), March 21, 2002.
  22. Werts, A. B., Brewer, C. A., & Mathews, S. A. (2012). Representing embodiment and the policy implementing principal using photovoice. Journal of Educational Administration, 50(6), 817-844.
  23. World Bank. 2002. Poverty in Pakistan: Vulnerabilities, Social Gaps and Rural Dynamics. Report No. 24296- PAK (p. 49). Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit South Asia Region. Accessed July 15, 2015. http://www.inweb618.worldbank.org/SAR/sa.nsf/countries