Work-Family Conflict and Job Performance: The Role of Project Leadership Behaviour and Spousal Support in NGOs in Pakistan

Abstract
Pakistan’s development sector is actively working to enhance the well-being of its citizens. NGOs in Pakistan work in various sectors, including health, poverty alleviation, education, violence against women, and child labour. This study investigates the relationship between work-family conflict (WFC) and job performance (JP), with a particular focus on the moderating effects of project leadership behaviour (PLB) and spousal support (SS). The research aims to assess how these moderating variables influence the extent to which WFC impacts employees' performance outcomes within project-based environments. The study sample consisted of 212 employees working in the development sector on various projects. The data was collected by e-mail and self-administered surveys from project personnel. This study used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) with the SMART PLS 3 program to conduct various tests, i.e., demographic profiling, reliability and validity testing, and moderation analysis to analyze the data. The study found that work-family conflict had a statistically significant positive influence on job performance, suggesting that employees may compensate for family-related stress by increasing work effort. Spousal support showed insignificant results and was therefore ruled out as a moderator of the relationship between work-family conflict and job performance. However, in the context of Pakistani culture, spousal support is often limited, which intensifies the burden on working partners—highlighting the need for organizational interventions to fill this gap. The study highlights the importance of supportive leadership in minimizing work-family conflict and improving staff performance in NGOs.
Keywords
Work-Family Conflict (WFC); , Project Leadership behaviour (PLB); , Spousal support (SS); , Job Performance (JP)
References
- Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411.
- Ahmed, R. (2022). Work-life balance challenges of NGO employees in Pakistan. Journal of Academic Research for Humanities, 2(2), 66–78.
- Akintayo, D. I. (2010). Work-family role conflict and organizational commitment among industrial workers in Nigeria. International Journal of Psychology and Counselling, 2(1), 1-8.
- Allen, T. D., Cho, E., & Meier, L. L. (2014). Work–family boundary dynamics. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, 1, 99–121.
- Aryee, S., Luk, V., Leung, A. and Lo, S. (1999). Role Stressors, Inter Role Conflict, and Well-Being: The Moderating Influence of Spousal Support and Coping Behaviours among Employed Parents in Hong Kong. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 54, 259-278. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1998.1667
- Aldhafeeri, N. A., Abou Hashish, E. A., & Abo Shereda, H. M. (2025). The effect of work-family conflict on staff nurses’ job performance: the mediating role of emotional intelligence. BMC nursing, 24(1), 614.
- Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (1988). Transformational leadership, charisma, and beyond.In: J. G. Hunt, B. R. Baliga, H. P. Dachler, & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Emerging leadership vistas, 29-49. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
- Baruch-Feldman, C., Brondolo, E., Ben-Dayan, D., & Schwartz, J. (2002). Sources of social support and burnout, job satisfaction, and productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 84.
- Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership. Psychology Press.
- Bonnet, M. H(.2011), Acute sleep deprivation. Principles and Practice of Sleep
- Medicine, 5(4), 54–66.
- Bruch, H., Shamir, B., & Cole, M. S. (2005). Promotion-oriented leadership and prevention-oriented leadership: Two ways of influencing follower motivation. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference, Honolulu, HI.
- Bruch, H., Shamir, B., & Eilam-Shamir, G. (2007). Managing meanings in times of crisis and recovery: CEO prevention-oriented leadership. In: R. Hooijberg, J. G. Hunt, J. Antonakis, K. Boal, & N. Lane (Eds), Being there even when you are not: Leading through strategy structures, and systems, 131-158. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- Byron, K. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work–family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 67(2), 169–198.
- Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial
- Validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal
- of Vocational behavior, 56(2), 249-276.
- Carlson, D. S., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2008). Reflections and future directions on
- Measurement in work-family research. In K. Korabik, D. S. Lero, & D. L.
- Whitehead (Eds.), Handbook of work-family integration: Research, theory,
- and best practices (pp. 57–74). London, England: Academic Press
- Chesley, N. (2005). Blurring boundaries? Linking technology use, spillover, individual distress, and family satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1237-1248.
- Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education
- (5th Edition). London: Routledge Falmer.
- Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1987). Toward a behavioural theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 12(4), 637-647.
- Davison, A. C., & Hinkley, D. V. (1997). Bootstrap methods and their application (No. 1). Cambridge University Press.
- De Clercq, D., Haq, I. U., & Butt, A. A. (2025). Experiencing conflict, feeling satisfied, and being engaged: Limiting the detrimental effects of work–family conflict on job performance. Journal of Management & Organization, 31(2), 661-678.
- Desrochers, S., Hilton, J. M., & Larwood, L. (2005). Preliminary validation of the work-family integration-blurring scale. Journal of Family Issues, 26(4), 442-466.
- Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. (1986). Bootstrap methods for standard errors, confidence intervals, and other measures of statistical accuracy. Statistical science, 54-75.
- Einarsen, S., Aasland, M. S., & Skogstad, A. (2007). Destructive leadership behaviour: A definition and conceptual model. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 207-216.
- Elbaz, A. M., & Haddoud, M. Y. (2017). The role of wisdom leadership in increasing job performance: Evidence from the Egyptian tourism sector. Tourism Management, 63, 66-76.
- Fatima (2023) examined how leadership behaviours influence employee well-being across South Asian organizational contexts.
- Felstead, A., Jewson, N., Phizacklea, A., & Walters, S. (2002). Opportunities to work at home in the context of work‐life balance. Human resource management journal, 12(1), 54-76.
- Ferguson, M., Carlson, D., Zivnuska, S., & Whitten, D. (2012). Support at work and home: The path to satisfaction through balance. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 80(2), 299-307.
- French, K. A., Dumani, S., Allen, T. D., & Shockley, K. M. (2018). A meta-analysis of work–family conflict and social support. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 102, 97–117.
- Fornell, C. & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 39-50.
- Frone, M. R. (2000). Work–family conflict and employee psychiatric disorders: The national comorbidity survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), 888.
- Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(1), 65.
- Gao, Y., Shi, J., Niu, Q., & Wang, L. (2013). Work–family conflict and job satisfaction: Emotional intelligence as a moderator. Stress and Health, 29(3), 222-228.
- George, J. M., & Bettenhausen, K. (1990). Understanding prosocial behaviour, sales performance, and turnover: A group-level analysis in a service context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(6), 698.
- George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: answers to selected exercises. A simple guide and reference, 63, 1461-1470.
- Greenhaus, J. H., Ziegert, J. C., & Allen, T. D. (2012). When family-supportive supervision matters: Relations between multiple sources of support and work–family balance. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 80(2), 266-275.
- Gudmunson, C. G., Danes, S. M., Werbel, J. D., & Loy, J. T. C. (2009). Spousal support and work—family balance in launching a family business. Journal of Family Issues, 30(8), 1098-1121.
- Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. H. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76-88
- relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(5), 597-615.
- Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate Data
- Analysis. Seventh Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
- Hair Jr, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., & Kuppelwieser, V. G. (2014). Partial least
- Structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). European business review.
- Halpern, D. F. (2005). How time‐flexible work policies can reduce stress, improve
- health, and save money. Stress and health, 21(3), 157-168.
- Halbesleben, J. R., Wheeler, A. R., & Rossi, A. M. (2012). The costs and benefits of
- working with one's spouse: A two‐sample examination of spousal support,
- work–family conflict, and emotional exhaustion in work‐linked
- Haar, J., Russo, M., Suñe, A., & Ollier-Malaterre, A. (2014). Outcomes of work–life
- Balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and mental health: A study across
- seven cultures. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 85(3), 361–373.
- Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American psychologist, 44(3), 513.
- Huynh, J. Y., Winefield, A. H., Xanthopoulou, D., & Metzer, J. C. (2012). Burnout and connectedness in the job demands–resources model: Studying palliative care volunteers and their families. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine®, 29(6), 462-475.
- Khan, H. (2021). Cultural roles and family expectations in Pakistani workplaces: An analysis. JARH, 1(3), 88–101.
- Janning, M. (2006). Put yourself in my work shoes. Variations in work-related spousal support for professional married coworkers. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 85– 109.
- Jin, X. (2017). The Relationship of Work-Family Conflict to Job Burnout and Job Satisfaction in Information Technology Employees in Korea: The Moderating Effects of Spousal Support. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(20), 9739-9745.
- Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity.
- Kalliath, P., & Kalliath, T. (2013). Work–family conflict and its impact on the job satisfaction of social workers. British Journal of Social Work, 45(1), 241-259.
- Kalliath, P., Kalliath, T., & Chan, C. (2017). Work–family conflict, family satisfaction and employee well‐being: a comparative study of Australian and Indian social workers. Human Resource Management Journal, 27(3), 366-381.
- Keene, J. R., & Quadagno, J. (2004). Predictors of perceived work-family balance: Gender difference or gender similarity? Sociological Perspectives, 47(1), 1-23.
- Kelly, E. L., Moen, P., & Tranby, E. (2011). Changing workplaces to reduce work-family conflict: Schedule control in a white-collar organization. American Sociological Review, 76(2), 265-290.
- Kelly, E. L., & Kalev, A. (2006). Managing flexible work arrangements in US organizations: Formalized discretion or 'a right to ask'. Socio-Economic Review, 4(3), 379-416.
- Kim, W. G., & Brymer, R. A. (2011). The effects of ethical leadership on manager job satisfaction, commitment, behavioural outcomes, and firm performance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(4), 1020-1026.
- Kock, N. (2013). Using WarpPLS in e-collaboration studies: What if I have only one group and one condition?. International Journal of e-Collaboration (IJeC), 9(3), 1-12.
- Kossek, E. E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T., & Hammer, L. B. (2011). Workplace social support and work–family conflict: A meta‐analysis clarifying the influence of general and work–work-work-family-specific supervisor and organizational support. Personnel psychology, 64(2), 289-313.
- Kopelman, R. E., Greenhaus, J. H., & Connolly, T. F. (1983). A model of work, family, and interrole conflict: A construct validation study. Organizational behaviour and human performance, 32(2), 198-215.
- Kossek, E. E., Ruderman, M. N., Braddy, P. W., & Hannum, K. M. (2012). Work–nonwork boundary management profiles: A person-centred approach. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 81(1), 112-128.
- Lian, H., Brown, D. J., Tanzer, N. K., & Che, H. (2011). Distal charismatic leadership and follower effects: An examination of Conger and Kanungo's
- Lu, J. F., Siu, O. L., Spector, P. E., & Shi, K. (2009). Antecedents and outcomes of a fourfold taxonomy of work-family balance in Chinese employed parents. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(2), 182.
- Moen, P., & Sweet, S. (2004). From 'work–family'to 'flexible careers' A life course reframing. Community, Work & Family, 7(2), 209-226.
- Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 400.
- Netemeyer, R. G., Maxham III, J. G., & Pullig, C. (2005). Conflicts in the work–family interface: Links to job stress, customer service, employee performance, and customer purchase intent. Journal of Marketing, 69(2), 130-143.
- Sanz-Vergel, A. I., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., & Antino, M. (2025). Work–family conflict and spouse’s job performance: when detaching from home is key. Work & Stress, 39(1), 66-82.
- Sarros, J. C., Cooper, B. K., & Santora, J. C. (2008). Building a climate for innovation through transformational leadership and organisational culture. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(2), 145-158.
- Şahin, S., & Yozgat, U. (2024). Work–family conflict and job performance: Mediating role of work engagement in healthcare employees. Journal of Management & Organization, 30(4), 931-950.
- Schyns, B., & Mohr, G. (2004). Nonverbal elements of leadership behaviour. Zeitschrift für Personalforschung, 18: 289-305
- Senjo, S. R. (2011). Dangerous fatigue conditions: a study of police work and law enforcement administration. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 12(3), 235-252.
- Shamir, B., & Howell, J. M. (1999). Organizational and contextual influences on the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2): 257-283.
- Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept-based theory. Organization science, 4(4), 577-594.
- Schnettler, B., Concha-Salgado, A., Orellana, L. et al.(2024). Influence of Workplace Support for Families and Family Support on Family-to-Work-Conflict and Family Satisfaction in Dual-Earner Parents with Adolescents during the Pandemic. Applied Research Quality Life 19, 2357–2388 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-024-10338-5
- Sun, Y., Gergen, E., Avila, M., & Green, M. (2016). Leadership and job satisfaction: Implications for leaders of accountants. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 6(03), 268.
- Wattis, L., Standing, K., & Yerkes, M. A. (2013). Mothers and work–life balance: exploring the contradictions and complexities involved in work–family negotiation. Community, Work & Family, 16(1), 1-19.
- Williams, K. J., Suls, J., Alliger, G. M., Learner, S. M., & Wan, C. K. (1991). Multiple role juggling and daily mood states in working mothers: an experience sampling study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5), 664.
- Zehir, C., Erdogan, E., & Basar, D. (2011). The relationship among charismatic leadership, ethical climate, job satisfaction and organizational commitment in companies. Journal of Global Strategic Management, 10, 49-59.